Comparing Creation Myths of Ancient Egypt and The Christian Bible Essay

Comparing Creation Myths of ancient Egypt and The Christian BibleCreation in Ancient Egyptian religion can be much different than the creation account taken from The Bible. coevals has a set description of The Beginning bandage there are several different versions and variations in Egyptian mythology. The versions range from a one god myth (Ptah see picture) to the more common causation out of Nun, which in itself has several derivations. The Ogdoad is a grouping of octet gods that existed before the creator and formed him. This version is taken from Middle Egypt at Hermopolis. The eight gods consisted of Amun, Huh, Kuk, and Nun and their counterparts (i.e. Nun and Naunet). They came together to create an egg that contains the creator (Baines, 1991). This is the point at which variations will occur. Inside the egg there could be gods (Re, Atum, or sometimes even Thoth) or a Blue Lotus. This Lotus would come forth from the egg and rise high into the darkness to a young god, Amen-R e. (The egg was environ by Nun which contained the Ogdoad. The Ogdoad consisted of four serpents and four frogs.)(Egyptian Creation Story, pg. 1) The child radiates light and banishes the darkness. He destroyed the silence with his Word and thus creation began. He then constructed a mound for which he could sit upon. (The Benben Stone, which was kept in Heliopolis, was said to have been the mound upon which the creator god, in this case Re, sat.(Redford)) In a different account the mound came forth from the waters of Nun bearing the egg and a run emerged. This falcon soared into the air and took its place as the sundisk (Redford). The falcon could also be represented by a winged insect such as a beetle or as a specious falcon. Another variat... ... is reality. If this type of thinking were to be followed one would come to realize that all the gods and goddesses did exist and so did the events told time and again in story. They were alive in the conscience of society. Creation di d begin with Nun, yet it also began with God creating the heavens and the earth. Everything depends on time, place, and perception of reality. WORKS CITEDHoly Bible. New International Version. Zondervan. Grand Rapids, Michigan. 1984. Genesis Chapter 1. John Baines, Leonard H. Lesko, David P. Silverman. Religion in Ancient Egypt. New York Cornell University Press 1991. Pages 92-100. Ancient Egyptian Religion. http//www.egypt-tehuti.com/religion.html. Pages 2 and 3 of 5. Egyptian Creation Story. http//members.aol.com/kheph777/mideast/mythos/egyptcrt.html. Page 1 of 3. Redford, professor Donald. Oral Communication

Comparing the Mothers in The Glass Menagerie and A Raisin in the Sun Es

Comparing the Mothers in The glaze over Menagerie and A Raisin in the SunThe plays, The Glass Menagerie and A Raisin in the Sun, deal with the love, honor, and respect of family. In The Glass Menagerie, Amanda, the caring but overbearing and over protective mother, wants to be taken sustenance of, but in A Raisin in the Sun, Mama, as she is known, is the overseer of the family. The prospective of the plays identify that we have family members, like Amanda, as overprotective, or like Mama, as overseers. I am going to give a contrast of the mothers in the plays.In The Glass Menagerie, by Tennessee Williams, we embark on the task of seeing a family livelihood in the post WWII era. The mother is Amanda, living in her own world and wanting only the best for her son, Tom. Tom, a dreamer, tired of Amandas overbearing and unvarying pursuit of him taking care of the family, wants to pursue his own goals of becoming a poet. He is constantly criticized and bombarded by his mother for being unsuccessful. This drives him to drinking and lying nigh his whereabouts, and eventually at the end of the play, he ends up leaving. An example of Amanda and Toms quarrel I when he quotes, I havent enjoyed single bit of this dinner because of your constant directions on how to eat it. Its you that makes me rush through meals with your hawklike attention to every bit I take.(302) Laura, on the other hand, is diffident and out of touch with reality because of a slight disability, in which she is comfort...

Student Loan Debt Should be Forgiven Essay examples -- Student Loan De

Does the amount of school-age child loan debt have an effect on the economy? If so would forgiving student loan debt attention lower the national debt or would it just increase it? According to Mary Claire Fischer, a writer for Kiplingers Personal Finance magazine, two-thirds of students who receive bachelors degrees leave college with an average debt of twenty-six thousand dollars (Fischer). This means that the average student debt has doubled since 2007 (Ross 24). The total student loan debt is $1.2 trillion with $1 trillion beingness from federal student loans (Denhart). This debt accounts for six percent of our nations $16.7 trillion debt (Denhart). Since student loan debt is such a big part of the national debt, if the student defaults on their loan then the United States tax payer has to carry the burden of the loan (Denhart). Students who are graduating with debt do have a couple of divers(prenominal) options that they can choose from. There is a six month g race period after graduation to allow the student time to find a job and programs to try to help eliminate debt. The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau estimates that one-fourth of the American workforce may be eligible for repayment or loan forgiveness programs (Atteberry n.p.). The problem with these programs however, is that they are hard to get into and stick with.Some of these programs that are options for students may require that student to move to a nonher city or even another country. This option would work well for someone who is able to move, but what about someone who cannot leave where they currently live. These graduates may not want to leave because of family for example. Another problem with these programs is that the student with loan debt must fully comp... ... Emily. Student Loan Forgiveness What you Dont Know (but Should). the States Today. 6 Dec. 2013. Web. 17 Feb. 2015.Denhart, Chris. How the $1.2 Trillion College Debt Crisis is Crippling Students, Parents, and the Economy. Forbes. 7 Aug. 2013. Web. 13 Mar. 2015.Fischer, Mary Claire. Student Loan Forgiveness What to Know. MSN. 9 Oct. 2013. Web. 17 Feb. 2015Morici, Peter. Forgiving College Debt Wont Help Students. CNBC. 14 May 2013. Web. 24 Feb. 2015.Pisani, Joseph. A Guide to Student Loan Forgiveness and Repayment Options. Huffington Post. 26 Sept. 2013. Web. 21 Feb. 2015.Ross, Andrew. Mortgaging the Future Student Debt in the Age of Austerity. New Labor Forum (Sage Publications Inc.) 22.1 (2013) 23-28. Academic Search Complete. Web. 13 Mar. 2015Webly, Kayla. Is Forgiving Student Loan Debt a Good Idea?. TIME. 20 Apr. 2012. Web. 17 Feb. 2015.

William Still and his Impact on Black History :: American America History

William Still and his Impact on Black HistoryWorking on farms to receiving whippings were just a few things each(prenominal) African Americans had to endure in the time of slavery. However there guard been numerous people and events that have been influential in black history. One momentous event is when William Still escaped from slavery. William Still was born on October 7th, 1821, in Burlington County, New Jersey. Stills original name as William Steel simply his father changed it to protect his wife. Unfortunately the Steel family was unable to escape slavery together. After his escape from the life of slavery, William moved to Philadelphia where he learned to read. He indeed started to assist fugitive black slaves when being paid to work as a janitor at Pennsylvanias Society for the Abolition of Slavery. While part the escapees he wound up disentangling his long lost brother from slavery. In 1972 William wrote The Underground Railroad, which included documents he received fr om former slaves. This book was crucial because closely books on slavery had some bias views written by white abolitionists. After visiting multitudinous escapees in Canada, Still was inspired to launch a desegregation campaign in Pennsylvania railroad cars. The campaign was triumphant and caused Pennsylvanian legislature to preclude segregation. William Still served as both President and vice chairwo humanness for the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery. He served as vice president for eight year and President for five. William did not stop there he then organized a YMCA for blacks, an orphanage for children of black sailors and soldiers and the mission Sabbath school. At age 81, in 1902, William Gant Still died of a disease known as Bights disease. However his exploits lead never be forgotten. William Stills achievements triggered many essential events on the path to abolishment of slavery. As one can see William was a man who did great things for those in need of help throughout his lifetime. However if he had never escaped from slavery his accomplishments may have never occurred. If he had not fled from slavery then there may not have been a chance for the successful escape of six hundred and forty nine slaves nor would his organizations have been formed to help many of those who needed assistance in overcoming the burdens of being former slaves.

Organs and Organ Systems to Organelles :: essays papers

Organs and Organ Systems to OrganellesThe human body consists of some(prenominal) different organs and organ systems, which ar do up of billions of cells. Inside these cells there are tiny organs,or organelles. These organelles act in many ways like the organs and systems of the body. To better understand the relationship between them, I am spill to compare and contrast their differences and their similarities. The brain is the control center of the human body. It sends and receives messages to the rest of the body. The brain is made up of many different parts, and each part has its aver job. The nucleus of a cell is very similar to the brain because it is the control center of the cell. It too sends and receives messages, only throughout the cell. The nucleus is made up of many other parts, which have all have special jobs also. The brain and nucleus are alike in several ways, but contrast in wizard primary area. The brain sends messages by neurons and electric impul ses, while the nucleus does it by means of messenger RNA. The body has a shape that is contributed to by the muscular and atrophied systems. Bones provide the body with framework, and the muscles allow movement. The cell has similar organelles, the cytoplasm and the microtubules, which provide the cell with form. The microtubules are tube-like structures that act like bones do in humans, they give shape and support to the cell. The cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance that keeps things in place, and restricts the movement of organelles in the cell. The main difference between them is the fact that microtubules arent united by anything like a ligament or a tendon and cytoplasm doesnt contract like muscles do. The digestive system of the human body is made up of several organs that work together to break down food so it can be used in the body. Similar organelles in the cell are endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, and the golgi body. Endoplasmic reticulum is used in the synthesis of molecules entering the cell. The ribosomes produce protein and send them to the places in the cell that needs it. The golgi body is the packaging order. All three of thes organelles play an important role in processing molecules in the cell.

Narrative - Life with Escher :: Personal Narrative Essays

Narrative - Life with Escher If you were to diagram my life, it would look very much wish well a drawing of Escher. Sometimes I feel like Im the upset thats drawing a hand thats drawing itself. Other times I feel like Im locked in one of those inescapable riddle cages. But nigh of all, I feel like Im on the ever-ascending stairway that never goes anywhere.Lifes canvas was not designed to be painted by human hands. Constrained by the limitations of space and time, crippled by the human inability to see the entire painting at once, and gifted with an uncanny lack of judgement, I smear and smirch what I cannot go back and fix. At the same time, I worked hard to render my own image impeccably clear without the faintest idea of who I real was or the realization that I was constantly in flux, changing as often as a lonely flower bends before the power of the wind. Once I began to find outward stasis, my inward person grieved that I was not in the end what I wanted to be at the beginn ing. My attempts were futile.I then looked to the Maker of the canvas and the Master Painter to draw something more perfect, more beautiful upon my perceivet and frame. But do I put follow out the brush and lay aside our pencils? No. I stupidly scribble all over the masterpiece of my Creator. Even if He asks me to stop (I only hear him if I havent destroyed the ears He painted in) I stubbornly confound His every stroke. Worse, I think I made an improvement.My life is also like Eschers paradox cage. This cage is of my own drawing. I thought I was building a palace for myself, but it restricted my movement. My own creation bound me, unplowed me from following the loving words of the Master Painter. He erased it for me once, but I was dumb enough to paint it back into existence. The funny thing, of course, is that its just like the paradox cage. It doesnt really keep me inside. I just think it does. From my perspective, I have the illusion that its an impregnable fortress when its on ly a fake facade that require hold no one in, rendered so by the Masters nail-pierced hands. In the end, I choose to stay inside, though if I listened close, Id hear the words of the Painter, guiding me done the illusion and onward in my life.

Narrative - Life with Escher :: Personal Narrative Essays

Narrative - Life with Escher If you were to diagram my life, it would look very much similar a drawing of Escher. Sometimes I ascertain like Im the hand thats drawing a hand thats drawing itself. Other times I feel like Im locked in one of those inescapable paradox cages. But most of both, I feel like Im on the ever-ascending stairway that never goes anywhere.Lifes canvas was non designed to be painted by human hands. Constrained by the limitations of space and time, crippled by the human inability to see the entire word picture at once, and gifted with an uncanny lack of judgement, I smear and smudge what I cannot go back and fix. At the same time, I worked hard to visualize my own image impeccably clear without the faintest idea of who I really was or the realization that I was constantly in flux, changing as very much as a lonely flower bends before the force of the wind. Once I began to find outward stasis, my inward person grieved that I was not in the end what I wanted t o be at the beginning. My attempts were futile.I then looked to the Maker of the canvas and the Master Painter to draw something more perfect, more beautiful upon my heart and frame. But do I put down the brush and lay aside our pencils? No. I stupidly scribble all over the masterpiece of my Creator. Even if He asks me to stop (I only hear him if I havent destroyed the ears He painted in) I stubbornly confound His any stroke. Worse, I think I made an improvement.My life is also like Eschers paradox cage. This cage is of my own drawing. I thought I was building a palace for myself, but it restricted my movement. My own creation bound me, kept me from following the loving words of the Master Painter. He erased it for me once, but I was dense enough to paint it back into existence. The funny thing, of course, is that its just like the paradox cage. It doesnt really keep me inside. I just think it does. From my perspective, I have the phantasm that its an impregnable fortress when i ts only a fake facade that need hold no one in, rendered so by the Masters nail-pierced hands. In the end, I rent to stay inside, though if I listened close, Id hear the words of the Painter, guiding me through the illusion and onward in my life.

America’s Crossroads

The fifty year span between 1870 and 1920 in United States history rear our great, growing nation struggling with many economic, racial and neighborly crisis. Rules were made and broken. W alones were built and torn down. Lines were drawn and crossed. With a huge cultural chasm yawning step forward across an invisible landscape, rocked on its foundations by a civil war, the United States of America stood at a crossroads, It was now entering uncharted territory. Would it let the dipsomaniac of differences and alienation between itself and its vanquished other half divide the nation forever?Or would it have the fortitude, forbearance, and mercy to begin the heart-rending task of putting the pieces back in concert again and truly becoming one nation, under God, indivisible, with liberty and fair(a)ice for all? though emotionally exhausted from its assuredly un-civil war, and except for the decimated South, the nations economic wellness was excellent. New opportunities abounded for the young and enterprising in the large cities that were growing ever larger thanks to the flood of immigrants faceing for the American dream.And in this new post-Civil fight era standards remained static in many areas, were raised in others, and certainly, most glaringly in the political-economic arena, fell in others. Great wealth, power, and prosperity accumulated promptly after the Civil War, and everyone wanted a hand in it. However, because standards were so lax in the political-economic area, a preoccupation with material and monetary gain increased. workforce whose principal claim to this newfound wealth and power (characteristics certainly envied) was through corruption and ruthlessness.A good example of one of these men was John D. Rockefeller in oil. He saw a marketplace of huge integrated companies, cooperating to avoid competition. The virtue of this new form of production, for Rockefeller, was its faculty. Then he Rockefeller set out to extinguish competition th ey could sell out to him at his price they could become his agents or they could be destroyed (261 Carol Noble). Not precisely a nonher term for selection of the fittest, efficiency and being efficient would revolutionize the industrial age, its people, and its civilisation.The humming and expanding continent, for all its corruption and crudities, embodied progress, and nothing would stand in its way. Rockefeller would go on to blab out prophetically about the social changes to come The day of combination is here to stay. Individualism has gone, never to return (261 Carol Noble). As individualism was being underseal up and replaced under the heels of industrialism, another -ism, racism, and second-class citizenship towards immigrants, blacks, and anyone with a different religion, remained unchanged.People from all walks of life that had come to the land of opportunity were increasingly forced into works alongside one another. Corporate leaders well understood and the exploited the ethnic groups within the labor force (265 Carol Noble). Pitting blacks against whites, whites against whites, Swedes against Slovaks, and Catholics against Jews, the fat cats just sat back and laughed. They deliberately worked to deepen resentment between them (265 Carol Noble). This, to me, is a very repulsive side to the new industrial age and its efficiency.These so-called leaders exploited many honest, hardworking people because of their ethnicity, low-class, and ignorance. Spurred on by their greed, their bosses greed, and greedy human nature in general. Treating people like they were animals in search of the almighty buck. To a small degree in their defense, America had never been here before. It never had industries, corporations, and things of this nature. It now had large railroads connecting the nation to make it possible for regional supernumeraryization to be linked to the national economy (260 Carol Noble).This was all new and people took advantage of it like hog s to slop. No discipline, no planning or thinking ahead. It was all going to last forever is what they probably thought. However, one people, one race, had been here before. Subjected to unheard of treatment, domination, and abuse for the past four hundred and roughly odd years, African-Americans did not know what to do with their new found freedom. This child race had received total guidance from the whites during the period of slavery (252 Carol Noble). Though they were not considered slaves anymore, they might as well have been.Ostracized to a ridiculous extent in almost every conceivable area, blacks were still hated by southern whites like Adolph Hitler hated the Jews. This crusading prejudice produced rigid forms of social segregation between 1890 and 1910 (254 Carol Noble). Many people thought segregation would work just fine. Many others did not. Among them were the ones who could actually do something about it the leaders. Many of them advocated the deportation of blacks , while other northern leaders listened to more extreme proposals, such as to alter the entire Negroe race (255 Carol Noble).These prejudice men would roll over in their graves at the progress blacks would go on to make by the latter half of the twentieth century versus the late nineteenth century. Blacks were not going to be held down m, and the squashing of the individual who, in the words of Andrew Carnegie, didnt have the special talent required to create and keep capitol (46 Kammen). A lot of these so-called untalented people were of course of the working class and the new efficiency invading the culture had them reeling.On top of all the myriad of changes and unstableness in the workplace was a new type of management by Frederick W. Taylor. Taylorism became an international byword for social control and for programs designed to make men function like machines (87 Kammen). Of course men are not like machines and so cannot function like them. Standards were not being raised in this critical backbone area of industry due to Taylorism, and labor America voiced it with growing labor unrest and study strikes, especially in 1911-12 (87 Kammen).Workers, it turned out, had brains and wanted to use them. Many of the people that were working at the turn of the twentieth century were woman, as the new efficiency permeating society pushed them out of the home and into the work force. They also campaigned against inequality and male double-standards. Tired of staying at home anyway, women were becoming more outspoken and independent. change magnitude numbers of young women attended colleges, choosing to become teachers, librarians, and social workers (242 Carol Noble).Chafing under restraint, women flexed their way into public life and changed the way they were viewed. In summary, change happens in all areas of life and at all times of life. It establishes itself as unpredictable, unreliable, maddening. Like the butterfly theory of flapping its wings in Tokyo and creating a rainstorm in cardinal Park, change is the weather of history. One thing influences another and another, producing good and bad. In life, human nature is the constant it is what affects change.

Constitution in USA Essay

A constitution is either a written (codified) or unwritten (uncodified) body of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state is acknowledged to be governed. Generally, a constitution is only written subsequently a major event. In the type of America their constitution was written in 1787, after the Ameri chiffonier Revolutionary War came to a close.There are a number of issues with Americas constitution which make it, arguably, unfit for the twenty-first century. The most apparent issue with the constitution is the overall ambiguity that its based upon. Take for poser the ordinal amendment which forbids the federal government from imposing cruel or unusual punishments on American citizens. How ever so, whats classed as a cruel or unusual punishment? Many dumbfound argued that capital punishment can be seen as a cruel punishment, which has led to some states, such as Illinois, abolishing the death penalization altogether. Though, despite eighteen s tates abolishing the death penalty so far, in that location has been no move to amend the constitution to include the death penalty as an example of cruel punishment.Another example of an ambiguous amendment is the first amendment which protects the well(p) to free speech as well as freedom of religion. However, how far this amendment applies has been questioned on numerous occasions. For example, Texas passed a law which prevented flag desecration (burning of the American flag), that the Supreme Court overturned the Texas law due to it violating citizens first amendment right as flag desecration is seen as an expression of belief, which the first amendment protects. This has led to numerous calls for flag desecration being outlawed via a constitutional amendment, however just like the eight amendment this would be incredibly hard to achieve. This is purely due to how difficult it is to amend the American constitution.The American constitutions amendment run is long and difficul t, which is mainly due to it requiring a supermajority. A supermajority is where 2/3rds of both houses of Congress have to agree to the amendment put forward. Even if either house fall short by one vote, the amendment is dropped. This process was made to be hard intentionally by the Founding Fathers. This wasbecause they believed that the constitution shouldnt be constantly changing, and so they created the need for a supermajority to stop the federal government from making rash, in the moment, decisions which they could grow to regret later on. However, it is this founding belief that has made the constitution, arguably, untenable for the 21st century, which can be contributed to Congress explosive growth over the last 200 years. For example, in 1789 there were only 65 Representatives in the kinfolk of Representatives, which grew to 435 by 1963 and plateaued due to the House of Representatives being capped in 1911. This is an increase of 370 over a period of 174 years (meaning th at there were two new Representatives every year). This continually increased the amount of people who had to work in unison to pass constitutional amendments, and as evidenced by the 1911 Act which capped the size of the House of Representatives, America grew far more than the Founding Fathers had originally intended.The constitution can also be seen as unfit for the 21st century due to an ever increasing political pace, as well as rapidly changing circumstances which have led to very different outcomes when compared to the British political system. This can mainly be seen with gun control which is protected in America by the second amendment (Right to bear arms) despite the amount of shootings which have occurred in recent times. An example of this would be the Sandy Hook shooting, which occurred on December 14th 2012 at an elementary school in Connecticut. This caused nationwide lash out which in turn caused support for disarmament groups to increase. However, after several mont hs the support fell away and no constitutional amendments were put through, despite pledges and campaigns from Barrack Obama and Joe Biden.Now, when compared to England, there was a shooting spree in a Dunblane Primary School in 1996. Following national outrage, much alike that caused by Sandy Hook, guns were criminalised by an Act of Parliament, which was significantly easier to do as the UK does not have a written constitution, rather an unwritten one which is drawn from several sources.However, despite the faults with the American constitution, it must be fit for purpose if it still exists. This is because if it wasnt fit forpurpose, and didnt work at all, it would have been scraped by one of the American administrations after its conception. This is mainly aided by the argument that the constitutions ambiguity is what allows it to adapt to changing circumstances as well as its ability to turn without formal review. What is meant by this is the fact that the Supreme Court can up hold or repeal earlier decisions made in relation to the constitution, meaning that if the amend decisions were repealed the constitution could be drastically changed.

Banquets and Confrenceing

1. 1 THE SIZE AND SCOPE OF CONFERENCE AND BANQUETING INDUSTRY IN THE UK Conference and banqueting is normally organizing an event, complete with main courses and desserts. It usually serves a purpose, such as a philanthropic gathering, a ceremony, or a celebration, small meetings, corporate gatherings, seminars, family occasions or weddings As of now, conferences are considered as whizz of the most essential and significant aspects in globalization as it bridge the gaps of various industries from one earth to another and it is helping many economies of various nations to be recognized all over the world.Accordingly, one of the most essential international conferences such as world expos is the World Expo conferences which are regarded as a large scale, non-commercial international expo. Since it is an essential and significant international conference such as world expo, the hosting for this must be applied for by a nation and approved by the international committee. The main goal of this event is to promote transfer and exchange of ideas as well as development of the global economy, experience and technology, customs and culture and to allow exhibitors to promote as well as show off their achievements and enhance international relationship.A banquet (/? b k. w? t/ French b. k? ) is a large meal or feast, complete with main courses and desserts. It usually serves a purpose such as a chari control board gathering, a ceremony, or a celebration, and is often preceded or followed by speeches in honour of someone The idea of banqueting in the UK is ancient. In the 16th century, a banquet was very different from our modern perception and stems from the medieval ceremony of the void. After dinner, the guests would stand and drink sweet wine and spices while the table was cleared, or voided (Later in the 17th century void would be replaced with the French dessert).During the 16th century, guests would no longer stand in the great chamber whilst the table was cleare d and the room prepared for entertainment, but would retire to the parlour or banqueting room. 1. 2 FACTORS THAT HAVE INFLUENCED THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONFERENCE AND BANQUETING INDUSTRY IN THE UK As the idea of conferencing and banqueting developed, it could scram place at any time during the day and have much more in common with the after practice of taking tea. Banqueting rooms varied greatly from house to house, but were generally on an intimate scale either in a garden oom or inside such as the small banqueting turrets in Longleat House. Modern banqueting has its roots in the traditions of the Greeks and Romans. The Greeks introduced the hors doeuvre course, to which the Romans added up to20 courses as they furthered the development of the banquet feast. From this elaborate format evolved the three-course medieval menu, which presented as many as 25 menu items with each course. The menu format revisions of the late-eighteenth and nineteenth centuries transformed the three primary courses with multiple dishes into a series of nine courses, each featuring an individual menu item.These revisions were incorporate-rated into menus throughout Europe and America in a variety of formats. The history of American banqueting begins with the feasts of the Native Americans. The menu formats of early colonial American banquets were primarily influenced by England. French cuisine and menu formats initially threaded their way to the colonies via English recipes and customs. The emigration of French royalists during the French Revolution accelerated the assimilation of both French cuisine and menus with American banqueting customs.Thomas Jefferson greatly aided the development of American banqueting during his years in the White House. His simplification of the menu and emphasis on wines were major elements in the development of a style of banqueting that prevailed over the next 165 years of White House functions. During the presidency of John Kennedy, banquets were enhanced by the contributions of Jacqueline Kennedy. Like Jefferson, Mrs Kennedy preferred menus of simplistic elegance that concentrated on a high quality of food and service.The records tracing the development of the banquet menu throughout the centuries provide a lavish and exciting chronicle of food items, recipes, and traditions. Many of these food items and recipes culminationure in our contemporary food customs. Today in the UK, banquets serve many purposes from training sessions, to black-tie business dinners. Business banquets are a popular way to strengthen bonds between businessmen and their partners. It is common that a banquet is organized at the end of an academic conference.A luau is one variety of banquets originally used in Hawaii. The Nei Mongol provincial government in China levies a tax on banquets. 1. 3 THREE FACTORS THAT HAVE INFLUENCED THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONFRENCE AND BANQUETING IN THE UK The banqueting and conference industry is also subject to many influences an d factors The banqueting and conference businesses must take these influences and factors into account when planning their operations and delivering their services. The influences and factors on the industry can be categorised as Economy / commerce Technology Legislation Lets consider examples of each of these factors. ?Economic / Commerce- factors can influence demand for hospitality services. During a recession or periods of low economic growth, people dont have as much disposable income as in times of an economic boom. People become more interested in value for money. Pubs and eaterys posit to offer money-off vouchers and discounts to encourage people to eat out more. ?Technology- plays a role in how people access hospitality services.Customers can now book restaurant tables, hotel rooms or spa days 24/7 from their computers or phones. Most hospitality businesses need an online presence. ?Legislation- All industries must be concerned for the wellness and safety of their employee s and customers, and must meet their legal obligations. Hospitality is no exception. Businesses are bound by the law. There is often a cost to the business in meeting its legal requirements, but this can save thousands of pounds in damages that might result from a negligence claim.

Developmental Stages Matrix Essay

Some physical changes is that the head changes and grows slowy to 90% when we reach the age of 5. Children are less same to have injury to the brain due to the plasticity of the brain at the young age. The maturing brain likewise increases its speed of processing. Between the ages of 8 and 12, the children chance lots faster at performing a mental task, such as adding two numbers together The first pointedness is the Sensorimotor Stage, which starts at tolerate and extends until the baby is about 2 years of age. During this stage infants procure knowledge finished actions that allow them to directly experience and manipulate objects around them.They also gain practical knowledge about the effects of their actions, such as grasping or pushing objects. Also object permanence which occurs at the end of the stage, where the infant realizes that just beca character they cant see an object it does not mean that it does not exist. The baby is a at a natural biological stage of being with the mother. There is a baby mother bond that goes on. It was said that even fathers who spend much than three hours with the baby caregiving can loose testosterone levels. It takes a while for the baby to just go to any stranger.Early ChildhoodChildrens muscles start to get stronger to where they can roll over, sit up straight, and hold their necks up. They get strong enough to walk around holding objects and crawl around the house. They grow more teeth and gain the ability to talk more and more. The guerrilla stage is called the Preoperational Stage and appears between birth and two years old. In this stage children are just beginning to develop their thinking skills and canuse words, symbols and images to represent the world. During this stage, young childrens play becomes increasingly imaginary and filled with fantasies.As children develop cognitively, their play will move from simple make-believe to plots involving more characters and scenarios, games with sophisticated r ules, etc. According to Piaget, playing isnt just fun it is an important part of brain development. Children grow and start saying that everything is mines. They go through a selfish mode and can have difficulty sharing. They have temper tantrums but simultaneously they want love. These little tempers are very get around though and and go from anger to love very quickly. Some would call this a mood swing.Middle ChildhoodChildren start growing from the ages 6 to 12 and reach puberty. Children start to get sexual maturation, the hormones in the body make biological changes. Boys get testosterone and girls breast change and start to form. The voices change and there is also change in size of the body. They gain moral reasoning of right and wrong. Cognitive abilities such as concentration and memory improve significantly during the nerve childhood years. Kids this age have much better attention spans than they did in early childhood and they are better able to remember information for long-lived spans of time. Their ability to pay attention for longer periods is improved and their selective attention is also much better. Children start spending more time out in the world with their peers. They are spending less time with their parents and trying to identify themselves. They start dealing with peers of the opposite sex and experiencing life. They also go through more or less sort of peer pressure which can be positive or negative.

Logic: American Association of State Colleges and Universities and Subsequent Rights Restrictions

Sequenced. Precise. Elegant. Clear. Hurleys A Concise Introduction to logic, 11th Edition How to set up an Origami Crane Make your own origami crane utilize these instructions and the perforated sheet of paper include in your mass. 1. Start with a squ ar go of paper, colored side up. conclude in half and open. Then fold in half the other way. 2. Turn the paper over to the white side. show up the paper in half, crease well and open, and then fold again in the other direction. 3. Using the creases you have made, bring the top 3 corners of the position down to the bottom corner.Flatten model. The iconic red crane on the cover of this radical edition of Hurleys, A Concise Introduction to Logic symbolizes the qualities that call for it the roughly(prenominal) successful logic text on the market. We have chosen origami to symbolize this texts c arful sequencing, precision, elegance, and clarity. About the Cover 4. Fold top angulate flaps into the center and unfold. 5. Fold top of model downwards, crease well and unfold. 6. Open the uppermost flap of the model, bringing it upwards and pressing the sides of the model inwards at the same conviction. Flatten down, creasing well.Couple an icon steeped in tradition with a clean, modern design, and you ordain quickly get a sense of the qualities that make this new edition of Hurley the best yet. Along with instructions, each new text includes a sheet of red paper so that you behind bring the cover to life. This physical exertion serves as a metaphor for the process of learn logic. It is challenging, withdraws practice, but can be fun. Ideas for other ways to create your own origami can be tack at www. origami-resource-center. com. 7. Turn model over and repeat Steps 4-6 on the other side. . Fold top flaps into the center. 9. Repeat on other side. 10. Fold both legs of 11. Inside Reverse Fold the legs model up, crease along the creases very well, then you just made. unfold. Finished Crane. 12. Inside Reverse Fold angiotensin converting enzyme side to make a head, then fold down the wings. Source www. origami-fun. com Copy refine 2010 Cengage in dression. tout ensemble Rights Reserved. whitethorn non be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in integral or in parcel. referable to electronic experts, more or less 3rd gear society subject whitethorn be conquer from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). column critical review has deemed that whatsoever stifled substance does non materially act the overall learning experience. Cengage knowledge militia the right to sequester extra fill at both snip if accomp eaching rights restrictions admit it. A C O N C I S E I N T R O D U C T I O N TO Logic copyright 2010 Cengage scholarship. in all Rights Reserved. May non be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in unscathed or in part. overdue to electronic rights, few third party inwardness whitethorn be smo in that respectd from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). newspaper colu mn review has deemed that each stifled field of study does non materially act the overall learning experience. Cengage breeding reserves the right to mutilate additional message at any conviction if concomitant rights restrictions take in it. Copyright 2010 Cengage schooling. al one Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in solely or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content whitethorn be stamp down from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). editorial review has deemed that any hold in content does not materially affect the overall learning experience.Cengage information reserves the right to remove additional content at any clipping if subsequent rights restrictions require it. A C O N C I S E I N T R O D U C T I O N TO Logic ELEVENTH EDITION PATRICK J. HURLEY University of San Diego Australia Brazil Japan Korea Mexico Singapore Spain United Kingdom United States Copyright 2010 Cengage tuition. All Rights Reserved. May not b e copied, scanned, or duplicated, in self-coloured or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be stifled from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). pillar review has deemed that any moderate content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any meter if subsequent rights restrictions require it. This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience.The publishing ho implement reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to electric current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www. cengage. com/highered to search by ISBN, author, title, or keyword for materials in your beas of occupy. Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in entirely or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. A Concise Introduction to Logic, El heretoforeth Edition Patrick J. Hurley Publisher Clark Baxter older Sponsoring Editor Joann Kozyrev Development Editor Florence Kilgo Assistant Editor Nathan Gamache Editorial Assistant Michaela Henry Media Editor Diane Akerman Marketing Manager Mark T.Haynes Marketing Coordinator Josh Hendrick Marketing Communications Manager Laura Localio Content Project Manager Alison Eigel Zade Senior Art Director Jennifer Wahi Print Buyer capital of Minnesotaa Van g Production Service Elm Street Publishing Services Internal designer Yvo Riezebos Cover designer Jeff whammy of CMB Design Partners Cover image Courtesy of Getty Images Red origami crane on white table (image number 85592979) Compositor Integra Softw atomic number 18 Services Pvt. Ltd. 2012, 2008, 2006 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.No part of this run short covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or employ in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information ne tworks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written per exception of the publisher.For product information and technology assistance, jot us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706 For permission to use material fro m this text or product, submit all requests online at www. cengage. com/permissions. Further permissions questions can be emailed to email defend com. Library of relation Control Number 2010924757 Student Edition ISBN-13 978-0-8400-3417-5 ISBN-10 0-8400-3417-2 Wadsworth 20 Channel Center Street Boston, MA 02210 USA Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with o? e locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan. Locate your local o? ce at international. cengage. com/region Cengage Learning products ar re booned in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. For your strain and learning solutions, visit www. cengage. com. Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www. cengagebrain. com. Printed in the United States of the States 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14 13 12 11 10 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in w hole or in part.Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. To All of the instructors, past and present, who have taught logic from this book. It is wrong always, everywhere, and for anyone, to believe anything upon insufficient evidence. W. K. Clifford slide fastener can be more important than the art of formal conclude jibe to genuine logic. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learn ing experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Brief Contents Preface xiii PART IINFORMAL LOGIC 1 2 3 Basic Concepts 1 Language Meaning and De? ition 78 Informal Fallacies 119 PART IIFORMAL LOGIC 4 5 6 7 8 Categorical Propositions 197 Categorical Syllogisms 259 Propositional Logic 310 Natural Deduction in Propositional Logic 380 Predicate Logic 442 PART IIIINDUCTIVE LOGIC 9 10 11 12 13 14 Analogy and Legal and Moral modestness 509 Causality and Mills Methods 529 Prob cleverness 554 Statistical Reasoning 571 Hypothetical/Scienti? c Reasoning 593 Science and Superstition 615 Appendix Logic and Graduate-Level Admissions Tests 644 Answers to Selected Exercises 655 Glossary/Index 697 vi Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eCha pter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Contents Preface xiii PART I? INFORMAL LOGIC 1 Basic Concepts workout 1. 1 7 1 1 14 33 1. 1 Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions 1. 2 Recognizing Arguments recitation 1. 2 25 1. 3 Deduction and innovation proceeding 1. 40 1. 4 Validity, honor, Soundness, Strength, Cogency 44 purpose 1. 4 53 1. 5 Argument Forms Proving Invalidity action 1. 5 63 57 1. 6 Extended Arguments action 1. 6 70 64 2 Language Meaning and De? nition 2. 1 Varieties of Meaning EXERCISE 2. 1 83 78 78 88 2. 2 The Intension and Extension of Terms EXERCISE 2. 2 92 2. 3 De? nitions and Their Purposes EXERCISE 2. 3 99 93 2. 4 De? nitional Techniques EXERCISE 2. 4 108 102 111 2. 5 Criteria for Lexical De? nitions EXERCISE 2. 5 115 vii Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. A ll Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 3 Informal Fallacies 3. 1 Fallacies in General EXERCISE 3. 1 121 119 122 138 119 3. 2 Fallacies of Relevance EXERCISE 3. 2 133 3. 3 Fallacies of untoughened Induction EXERCISE 3. 3 149 3. 4 Fallacies of Presumption, Ambiguity, and Grammatical Analogy 156 EXERCISE 3. 4 170 . 5 Fallacies in routine Language EXERCISE 3. 5 185 178 PART II? FORMAL LOGIC 4 Categorical Propositions 197 4. 1 The Components of Categorical Propositions 197 EXERCISE 4. 1 200 4. 2 Quality, Quantity, and Distribution EXERCISE 4. 2 204 200 4. 3 Venn Diagrams and the Modern Square of Opposition 205 EXERCISE 4. 3 216 4. 4 Conversion, Obversion, and Contraposition EXERCISE 4. 4 225 217 4. 5 The Traditional Square of Opposition EXERCISE 4. 5 234 227 4. 6 Venn Diagrams and the Traditional Stand speckle 239 EXERCISE 4. 6 245 4. 7 Translating Ordinary Language Statements into Categorical Form 246 EXERCISE 4. 254 viii Contents Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 5 Categorical Syllogisms 259 5. 1 Standard Form, Mood, and mental image 259 EXERCISE 5. 1 264 5. 2 Venn Diagrams EXERCISE 5. 277 266 280 288 292 5. 3 Rules and Fallacies EXERCISE 5. 3 286 5. 4 Reducing the Number of Terms EXERCISE 5. 4 291 5. 5 Ordinary Language Arguments EXERCISE 5. 5 294 5. 6 Enthymemes 295 EXERCISE 5. 6 297 5. 7 Sorites 301 EXERCISE 5. 7 304 6 Propositional Logic EXERCISE 6. 1 319 310 6. 1 Symbols and interlingual rendition 310 6. 2 Truth Functions EXERCISE 6. 2 332 323 6. 3 Truth Tables for Propositions 335 EXERCISE 6. 3 341 6. 4 Truth Tables for Arguments EXERCISE 6. 4 347 344 6. 5 Indirect Truth Tables 350 EXERCISE 6. 5 358 6. 6 Argument Forms and Fallacies EXERCISE 6. 6 371 360 Contents ixCopyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 7 Natural Deduc tion in Propositional Logic 380 7. 1 Rules of Implication I 380 EXERCISE 7. 1 386 7. 2 Rules of Implication II 391 EXERCISE 7. 396 7. 3 Rules of Replacement I 401 EXERCISE 7. 3 407 7. 4 Rules of Replacement II EXERCISE 7. 4 419 414 7. 5 qualified Proof EXERCISE 7. 5 430 427 7. 6 Indirect Proof EXERCISE 7. 6 436 432 438 7. 7 Proving Logical Truths EXERCISE 7. 7 440 8 Predicate Logic 442 8. 1 Symbols and commentary 442 EXERCISE 8. 1 449 8. 2 Using the Rules of Inference EXERCISE 8. 2 460 451 8. 3 Change of Quanti? er Rule EXERCISE 8. 3 467 464 468 8. 4 Conditional and Indirect Proof EXERCISE 8. 4 472 8. 5 Proving Invalidity EXERCISE 8. 5 479 474 481 8. 6 Relational Predicates and Overlapping Quanti? ers EXERCISE 8. 6 489 . 7 identicalness 492 EXERCISE 8. 7 501 x Contents Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChap ter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Part III INDUCTIVE LOGIC 9 Analogy and Legal and Moral Reasoning 509 9. 1 Analogical Reasoning 9. Legal Reasoning 9. 3 Moral Reasoning EXERCISE 9 520 509 512 516 10 Causality and Mills Methods 10. 2 Mills Five Methods 531 10. 3 Mills Methods and Science EXERCISE 10 546 529 529 10. 1 Cause and Necessary and Sufficient Conditions 540 11 Probability 554 11. 1 Theories of Probability 11. 2 The Probability Calculus EXERCISE 11 567 554 557 12 Statistical Reasoning 571 12. 1 Evaluating Statistics 571 12. 2 Samples 572 576 12. 3 The Meaning of Average 12. 4 Dispersion 578 12. 5 Graphs and Pictograms 12. 6 Percentages 586 EXERCISE 12 588 583 13 Hypothetical/Scienti? c Reasoning 593 13. The Hypothetical Method 593 13. 2 Hypothetical Reasoning Four Ex amples from Science 596 Contents xi Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 13. 3 The Proof of Hypotheses EXERCISE 13 607 02 13. 4 The probationary Acceptance of Hypotheses 604 14 Science and Superstition 14. 2 Evidentiary Support 14. 3 Objectivity 14. 4 Integrity EXERCISE 14 615 615 14. 1 Distinguishing in the midst of Science and Superstition 616 621 625 630 631 14. 5 Concluding Remarks Appendix Logic and Graduate-Level Admissions Tests 644 Answers to Selected Exercises Glossary/Index 697 655 xii Contents Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Preface The most immediate benefit derived from the study of logic is the skill needed to construct rifle arguments of ones own and to evaluate the arguments of others. In accomplishing this goal, logic instills a sensitivity for the formal component in language, a thorough command of which is native to clear, e? ective, and meaningful communication.On a broader scale, by focusing attention on the requisite for reasons or evidence to support our views, logic provides a fundamental exculpation against the prejudiced and uncivilized attitudes that threaten the foundations of our democratic society. Finally, through its attention to inconsistency as a fatal ? aw in any theory or point of view, logic proves a useful device in disclosing ill-conceived policies in the political sphere and, ultimately, in distinguishing the rational from the irrational, the sane from the insane. This book is written with the look at of securing these bene? s. Every Book Has a Story When I ? rst began teaching introductory logic many old age ago, I selected a textbook that was widely used and highly regarded. Yet, my students often had a hard time understanding it. The book tended to be overly wordy and the main points were often lost amid a mess of detail. Also, I found that much of the books content was only peripherally related to the central concepts of logic. Using this book provided the happy and unanticipated provide that my students always came to class so they could hear me explain the textbook.But by and by I tired of doing this, I decided to write a textbook of my own that would lot the de? ciencies of the one I had been using. Speci? cally, my goal was to write a book in which the main points were always presented up front so students could not possibly miss them, the prose was clear and uncomplicated, and excess verbiage and peripheral subject matter was avoided. To accomplish these and other related goals, I incorporated the following(a) pedagogical devices Relevant and cutting-edge examples were used extensively throughout the book. Key toll were introduced in bold face type and de? ed in the glossary/index. Central concepts were illustrated in graphic boxes. Numerous exercisestoday there are over 2,600were included to perfect student skills. Many exercises were drawn from real(a)-life sources such as textbooks, newspapers, and magazines. Typically every third exercise was answered in the back of the book so students could check their work. xiii Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplica ted, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapters were organized so that earlier sections provided the foundation for later ones. Later sections could be skipped by instructors opting to do so. Important rules and tables were printed on the inside covers for frame access. In its ? rst edition, the book was so well received that plans were quickly begun for a second edition.With the completion of that and later editions, the book grew to incorporate many new features Venn diagrams for syllogisms were presented in a novel and more e? ective way using color to identify the relevant areas. Dialogue exercises were included to depict the commission of fallacies i n real life. Predicate logic was extended to include relational predicates and identity. The Eminent Logicians feature was introduced to elevate the human member it presented the lives of historically prominent logicians. Truth Trees and Critical sentiment and Writing were written as supplements. Learning Logic, a multimedia program that includes an additional 2,000 exercises and that practically teaches the course by itself, was included in the package. A serial of videos dealing with topics that students ? nd di? cult, including the concept of validity, indirect truth tables, and natural deduction, were o? ered with the last edition. I am convinced that with each successive edition the book has become a more e? ective teaching tool. I am also convinced that the current, eleventh edition, is the best and most accurate one to date. bran-new To This Edition Five new biographical vignettes of prominent logicians are introduced.The new logicians include Ruth Barcan Marcus, Al ice Ambrose, Ada Byron (Countess of Lovelace), Willard Van Orman Quine, and Saul Kripke. Six new talk exercises are introduced to help a? rm the relevance of formal logic to real-life. They can be found in Sections 5. 6, 6. 4, 6. 6, 7. 3, 7. 4, and 8. 2. The end-of-chapter summaries now appear in bullet format to make them more useful for student review. Many new and improved exercises and examples appear throughout the book. In Section 1. 4, the link amidst inductive reasoning and the principle of the uniformity of nature is explained.Cogent inductive arguments are those that accord with this principle, bit weak ones violate it. Such violations are always accompanied by an element of surprise. xiv Preface Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed cont ent does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. The connection between the Boolean Standpoint and the Aristotelian standpoint is explained more completely. The existential delusion as it occurs in immediate inferences is explained in greater detail. All inferences that commit this fallacy have a universal present and a particular mop up. The meaning of universal and particular are extended to cover avowals that are given as false. A new exercise set is introduced in Section 4. 5 that involves testing immediate inferences for soundness. An improved de? nition of the main operator of a compound argumentation is given. A new subsection is introduced in Section 6. 5 giving preliminary instruction on how to work backward from the truth values of the truthful propositions to the truth values of the operators. A new exercise set provides practi ce with this technique. Section 7. 1 has been rewritten, emphasizing the strategy of trying to ? nd the end point in the premises. Margin of error in Chapter 12 is now explained in terms of level of expectation. A more informative table illustrates this change. A complete identify of all improvements is given at the beginning of the Instructors Manual.Note to the Student Imagine that you are interviewing for a job. The person across the desk asks about your strengths, and you reply that you are energetic, en indeediastic, and willing to work long hours. Also, you are creative and innovative, and you have good leadership skills. Then the interviewer asks about your weaknesses. You hadnt anticipated this question, but after a moments thought you reply that your reasoning skills have never been very good. The interviewer quickly responds that this weakness could create big problems. Why is that? you ask. Because reasoning skills are essential to good judgment. And without good jud gment your creativity will lead to projects that make no sense. Your leadership skills will direct our other employees in circles. Your frenzy will undermine everything we have accomplished up until now. And your working long hours will make things even worse. But dont you think there is some position in your company that is right for me? you ask. The interviewer thinks for a moment and then replies, We have a competitor on the other side of town. I hear they are hiring right now. Why dont you apply with them? The point of this little dialogue is that good reasoning skills are essential to doing anything right. The note person uses reasoning skills in writing a report or preparing a presentation the scientist uses them in designing an experiment or clinical trial, the plane section manager uses them in maximizing worker e? ciency, the lawyer uses them in composing an argument to a judge or jury. And thats where logic comes in. The primary(prenominal) purpose of logic is to br eak in good reasoning skills. In fact, logic is so important that when the liberal arts program of studies was formulated ? fteen hundred days Preface v Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. ago, logic was selected as one of the original seven liberal arts. Logic outrides to this day a central component of a college or university education.From a more pragmatic angle, logic is important to earning a good score on any of the several tests required for admission to graduate professional schoolsthe LSAT, GMAT, MCAT, and so on. Obviously, the designers of these tests re cognize that the ability to reason logically is a prerequisite to success in these ? elds. The appendix in the back of the book contains sample questions and cues on answering them. Also, logic is a useful tool in relieving what has come to be called math anxiety. For whatever reason, countless students today are terri? ed of any form of reasoning that involves vellicate symbols.If you happen to be one of these students, you should ? nd it relatively easy to master the use of logical symbols, and your newly found comfort with these symbols will carry over into the other, more di? cult ? elds. To improve your performance in logic, I strongly urge you to take full advantage of a multimedia program called Learning Logic. This is an interactive tutorial that teaches the essentials of this textbook in a very user-friendly way. However, your computer must be equipped with loudspeakers or headphones, because the audio component is essential.Learning Logic is available both on CD and onlin e at the Logic CourseMate site. If the CD version or a passcode for the website did not come with your textbook, it can be purchased one at a time through your campus bookstore if your instructor has ordered it. You can also order it directly at www. cengagebrain. com. In addition to Learning Logic, an eBook and other quizzes and self-study material are available on the Logic CourseMate site. Also available online through the Logic CourseMate site are brief video lectures on key topics. The videos include pointers on how to work the pertinent exercises in the textbook.They cover topics such as the concept of validity, conversion, obversion, and contraposition, indirect truth tables, and natural deduction. If, as you work through the content of this book, you catch a subject that you have trouble understanding, one of these videos may solve the problem. superfluously, a set of audio summaries for each chapter in the book is available. These are knowing so that you can download th em onto your iPod, mp3 player, or computer and listen to them before taking a test. Because pro? ciency in logic involves developing a kill, it helps to work through the practice problems in Learning Logic and the exercises in the textbook more than once. This will help you see that good reasoning (and bad reasoning, too) follows reliable patterns whose identi? cation is crucial to success in logic. As you progress, I think you will ? nd that learning logic can be lots of fun, and working with the online resources should enhance your overall learning experience. Note to the Instructor With this eleventh edition, Learning Logic is available both on CD and online. The CD comes free ifordered with a new book, or it can be ordered separately at www. engagebrain. com. Online, Learning Logic it is available through the Logic CourseMate site, a password protected website (www. cengage. com/sso). This website o? ers the bene? t of being able to check a students time on task, that is, how m uch time the student has spent using a particular supplement. Critical Thinking and Writing and Truthtrees are available free on the website, and they can also be selected as modules in a custom version of the textbook. The videos, which cover topics students often have trouble with, are also available on Logic CourseMate.This edition also features Aplia, one of the Cengage Learning CourseMaster digital solutions. Aplia established a name for itself in the ? eld of economics, where it o? ers interactive online homework xvi Preface Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience.Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. assignments with continuous feedback to students. Providing automatic grading, Aplia increases student effort and keeps students accountable for course material while adding no additional paperwork to the instructors workload, leaving instructors with more time to prepare lectures and work with students. As Aplia expands its o? erings to include additional subjects, it has won general acclaim from thousands of instructors across numerous disciplines. Now, Aplia o? ers its signature bene? s to logic students and instructors with a program speci? cally designed to enhance student engagement. The Aplia assignments build on the exercises in this textbook, and they conform to the language, style, and structure of the book. Let me now turn to alternate ways of approaching the textbook. In general, the material in each chapter is arranged so that authorized later sections can be skipped without a? ecting subsequent chapters. For example, those wishing a brief treatment of natural deducti on in both propositional and predicate logic may motive to skip the last three sections of Chapter 7 and the last four (or even ? e) sections of Chapter 8. Chapter 2 can be skipped altogether, although some may want to cover the ? rst section of that chapter as an introduction to Chapter 3. Finally, Chapters 9 through 14 depend only slightly on earlier chapters, so these can be treated in any order one chooses. However, Chapter 14 does depend in part on Chapter 13. Type of Course Traditional logic course Recommended material Chapter 1 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Sections 7. 17. 4 Informal logic course, critical reasoning course Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Sections 5. 15. Sections 5. 55. 6 Sections 6. 16. 4 Section 6. 6 Chapter 9 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Writing appurtenance Section 5. 4 Section 5. 7 Section 6. 5 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Course emphasizing modern formal logic Chapter 1 Sections 4. 14. 3 Section 4. 7 Sections 6. 16. 5 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Truth Tree Supplement Optional material Chapter 2 Sections 7. 57. 7 Chapters 914 Chapter 3 Sections 4. 44. 6 Sections 5. 15. 2 Section 5. 7 Section 6. 6 Preface xvii Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Acknowledgements For their reviews and suggestions leading to this eleventh edition I want to thank the following Kevin Berry Scott Calef Gabriel Camacho Loren Cannon Victor Cosculluela Thompson Faller Thomas J.Frost Paul Gass Alexander Hall Courtney Hammond Merle Harton Anthony Hanson Ron Jackson William Jamison Sandra Johanson Richard Jones Russel Jones William Lawh ead Stephen Leach Keane Lundt Erik Meade Ian MacKinnon Allyson Mount Seyed Mousavian Madeline Muntersbjorn Herminia Reyes Frank Ryan Eric Saidel Stephanie Semler Janet Simpson Aeon Skoble Joshua metalworker Paula Smithka Krys Sulewski Brian Tapia William Vanderburgh Mark Vopat David Weise Shannon Grace Werre Katherine D.Witzig Stephen Wykstra Ohio University Ohio Wesleyan University El Paso conjunction College Humboldt State University Polk State College University of Portland Biola University/Long Beach metropolis College Coppin State University Clayton State University Cuyamaca College Edward Waters College West valley College Clayton State University University of Alaska Anchorage Green River Community College Howard University University of Oklahoma University of Mississippi UTPA Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts Southern Illinois UniversityEdwardsville The University of Akron Keene State College University of Alberta University of Toledo San Diego State University Kent St ate University George capital letter University Radford University Su? olk County Community College Bridgewater State College Central Michigan University University of Southern Mississippi Edmonds Community College Foothill College Wichita State University Youngstown State University Gonzaga University Edmonds Community College Southwestern Illinois College Calvin College Of course any errors or omissions that may remain are the result of my own oversight. xviii Preface Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Those who have contributed reviews and suggestions leading to the ten previous editions, and to whom I express my continued thanks, are the following James T. Anderson, University of San Diego Carol Anthony, Villanova University Joseph Asike, Howard University Harriet E.Baber, University of San Diego Kent Baldner, Western Michigan University James Baley, bloody shame Washington College Jerome Balmuth, Colgate University Victor Balowitz, State University of New York, College at Buffalo Ida Baltikauskas, Century College Gary Baran, Los Angeles City College Robert Barnard, University of Mississippi Gregory Bassham, Kings College Thora Bayer, Xavier University of Louisiana David Behan, Agnes Scott College conjuration Bender, Ohio University, Athens James O. Bennett, University of Tennessee, Knoxville Victoria Berdon, IUPU capital of Ohio Robert Berman, Xavier University of Louisana Joseph Bessie, Normandale Community College John R. Bosworth, Oklahoma State University Andrew Botterell, University of Toronto Tom Browder, University of Nevada, Las Vegas Kevin Browne, Indiana University Southeast Harold Brown, normalityern Illinois University KenBuckman, University of Texas, Pan American Robert Burch, Texas A&M University Keith Burgess-Jackson, University of Texas, Arlington Michael Byron, Kent State University James Campbell, University of Toledo Joseph Keim Campbell, Washington State University Charles Carr, atomic number 18 State University William Carroll, Coppin State University Jennifer Caseldine-Bracht, IUPU Fort Wayne John Casey, jointureern Illinois University Greg Cavin, Cypress College Robert Greg Cavin, Cypress College Ping-Tung Chang, University of Alaska Prakash Chenjeri, Southern Oregon University Drew Christie, University of New Hampshire Timothy Christion, University of North Texas Ralph W. Clarke, West Virginia University David Clowney, Rowan University Michael Cole, College of William and Mary Michael J. Colson, Merced College William F. Cooper, Baylor University William Cornwell, Salem State College Vic tor Cosculluela, Polk Community College Mike Coste, Front Range Community College Ronald R. Cox, San Antonio College Houston A. Craighead, Winthrop University Donald Cress, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb Jack Crumley, University of San Diego Linda Damico, Kennesaw State University William J.DeAngelis, north University Joseph DeMarco, Cleveland State University Paul DeVries, Wheaton College Jill Dieterle, easterly Michigan University Mary Domski, University of New Mexico Beverly R. Doss and Richard W. Doss, Orange Coast College Paul Draper, Purdue University William A. Drumin, Kings College, Pennsylvania Clinton Dunagan, Saint Philips College Paul Eckstein, Bergen Community College Anne M. Edwards, Austin Peay State University Lenore Erickson, Cuesta College Michael Epperson, California State University, Sacramento Cassandra Evans, San Diego City College Evan Fales, University of Iowa Lewis S. Ford, Old Dominion University Gary Foulk, Indiana State University, Terre Haute LeAn n Fowler, Slippery contention University Thomas H. Franks, Eastern Michigan University Bernard D.Freydberg, Slippery Rock University Frank Fair, Sam Houston State University Timothy C. Fout, University of Louisville Craig Fox, California University of Pennsylvania Dick Gaffney, Siena College George Gale, University of Missouri, Kansas City Pieranna Garavaso, University of Minnesota at Morris Joseph Georges, El Camino College Kevin Gibson, University of carbon monoxide gas Victor Grassian, Los Angeles Harbor College J. Randall Groves, Ferris State University Shannon Grace, Edmunds Community College James Granitto, Santiago Canyon College Catherine Green, Rockhurst University James Greene, Northern Michigan University Harold Greenstein, SUNY Brockport Shahrokh Haghighi, California State University Alexander W.Hall, Clayton State University dean Hamden, Montclair State University Ken Hanly, Brandon University Larry Hauser, Alma College Deborah Heikes, University of Alabama in Huntsvi lle Ronald Hill, University of San Diego Lawrence Hinman, University of San Diego Preface xix Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Dale Lynn Holt, Mississippi State University John B.Howell, III, Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary R. I. G. Hughes, University of South Carolina, Columbia Lynn Holt, Mississippi State University Peter Hutcheson, Texas State University Debby D. Hutchins, Boston College William H. Hyde, well-off West College Sandra Johanson, Green River Community College Gary Jones, University of San Diego Glenn C. Joy, Texas State University, San Marcos Olin Joynton, North Harris County College Grant Julin, St. Francis University Glen Kessler, University of Virginia Charles F. Kielkopf, Ohio State University Moya Kinchla, Bakersfield College Bernard W. Kobes, Arizona State University Keith W.Krasemann, College of DuPage Richard La Croix, State University College at Buffalo Sandra LaFave, West valley College, Saratoga, California Richard Lee, University of Arkansas Lory Lemke, University of Minnesota, Morris Robert Levis, Pasadena City College Chenyang Li, Monmouth College, Monmouth, Illinois Ardon Lyon, City University of London Scott MacDonald, University of Iowa Krishna Mallick, Salem State College Thomas Manig, University of Missouri, Columbia James Manns, University of Kentucky Dalman Mayer, Bellevue Community College Larry D. Mayhew, Western Kentucky University Leemon McHenry, California State University, Northridge Robert McKay, Norwich University turn McKita, Colorado State University Phillip McReynolds, Pennsylvani a State University Noel Merino, Humboldt State University Kenneth R.Merrill, University of Oklahoma Thomas Michaud, Wheeling Jesuit College Dolores Miller, University of Missouri, Kansas City George D. Miller, DePaul University Richard Miller, East Carolina University Frederick Mills, Bowie State University Jeff Mitchell, Arkansas Tech University John Mize, Long Beach City College Dwayne Mulder, California State University, Fresno John D. Mullen, Dowling College Henry Nardone, Kings College Theresa Norman, South Texas Community College David OConnor, Seton Hall University Len Olsen, tabun Southern University Elane ORourke, Moorpark College Brendan OSullivan, Rhodes College Linda Peterson, University of San Diego Rodney Peffer, University of San Diego Robert G.Pielke, El Camino College Cassandra Pinnick, Western Kentucky University Nelson Pole, Cleveland State University Norman Prigge, Bakersfield State University Gray Prince, West Los Angeles College R. Puligandla, University of To ledo T. R. Quigley, Oakland University Nani Rankin, Indiana University at Kokomo Robert Redmon, Virginia Commonwealth University Bruce Reichenbach, Augsburg College David Ring, Southern Methodist University Tony Roark, Boise State University Michael Rooney, Pasadena City College Phyllis Rooney, Oakland University Beth Rosdatter, University of Kentucky Michelle M. Rotert, Rock Valley College Paul A. Roth, University of Missouri, Saint Louis Daniel Rothbart, George Mason University Robert Rupert, University of Colorado, Boulder Sam Russo, El Camino College Kelly Salsbery, Stephen F.Austin State University Eric Saidel, George Washington University Paul Santelli, Siena College Stephen Satris, Clemson University Phil Schneider, Coastal Carolina University Philip Schneider, George Mason University James D. Schumaker, University of North Carolina at Charlotte Stephanie Semler, Radford University Pat Sewell, University of North Texas Elizabeth Shadish, El Camino College Joseph G. Shay, Bost on College Dennis L. Slivinski, California State University, Channel Islands Arnold Smith, Youngstown State University JohnChristian Smith, Youngstown State University Paula Smithka, University of Southern Mississippi Eric W.Snider, University of Toledo Bob Snyder, Humboldt University Joseph Snyder, Anne Arundel Community College Lynne Spellman, University of Arkansas David Stern, University of Iowa James Stuart, Bowling Green State University John Sullins, Sonoma State University John Sweigart, James Madison University Clarendon Swift, Moorpark College Wayne Swindall, California Baptist College Bangs Tapscott, University of Utah Ramon Tello, Shasta College Jan Thomas, University of Arkansas at Little Rock Phil Thompson, Eastern Illinois University Richard Tieszen, San Jose State University Larry Udell, West Chester University Ted Ulrich, Purdue xx Preface Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to ele ctronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. University Robert Urekew, University of Louisville William Uzgalis, Oregon State University Thomas H. Warren, Solano Colleg Andrew J.Waskey, Dalton State University Roy Weatherford, University of South Florida Chris Weigand, Our Lady of the Lake University David Weinburger, Stockton State College Paul Weirich, University of Missouri, Columbia Robert Wengert, University of Illinois, Urbana/Champaign Gerald Joseph Williams, Seton Hall University Frank Wilson, Bucknell University W. Kent Wilson, University of Illinois, Chicago Stephen Wykstra, Calvin College Marie Zaccaria, Georgia Perimeter College Jeffrey Zents, University of Texas Finally, it has been a pl easure working with philosophy editor Joann Kozyrev, development editor Florence Kilgo, project manager Alison Eigel Zade, project editors Emily Winders and Amanda Hellenthal, and editorial assistant Michaela Henry. Preface blackjack Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affe ct the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 1 Basic Concepts 1. 1 1. 2 1. 3 1. 4 1. 5 1. Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions Recognizing Arguments Deduction and Induction Validity, Truth, Soundness, Strength, Cogency Argument Forms Proving Invalidity Extended Arguments 1. 1 Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions Logic may be de? ned as the organized body of knowledge, or science, that evaluates arguments. All of us converge arguments in our day-to-day experience. We read them in books and newspapers, hear them on television, and formulate them when communicating with friends and associates. The aim of logic is to develop a system of regularitys and principles that we may use as criteria for evaluating the arguments of others and as guides in constructing arguments of our own.Among the bene? ts to be expected from the study of logic is an increase in con? dence that we are making sense when we criticize the arguments of others and when we get along arguments of our own. An argument, in its most basic form, is a group of statements, one or more of which (the premises) are claimed to provide support for, or reasons to believe, one of the others (the conclusion). All arguments may be placed in one of two basic groups those in which the premises really do support the conclusion and those in which they do not, even though they are claimed to. The former are said to be good arguments (at least to that extent), the latter bad arguments.The purpose of logic, as the science that evaluates arguments, is thus to develop methods and techniques that allow us to distinguish good arguments from bad. As is apparent from the given definition, the term argument has a very specific meaning in logic. It does not mean, for example, a mere verbal ? ght, as one mighthave with ones parent, spouse, or friend. Let us examine the features of this de? nition in Additional r esources are available on the Logic CourseMate website. 1 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 1 greater detail. First of all, an argument is a group of statements. A statement is a sentence that is either true or falsein other words, typically a declarative sentence or a sentence component that could stand as a declarative sentence. The following sentences are statements Chocolate truffles are loaded with calories. Melatonin helps relieve jet lag. Political candidates always tell the complete truth.No wives ever cheat on their husbands. Tiger Woods plays golf and Ma ria Sharapova plays tennis. The first two statements are true, the second two false. The last one expresses two statements, both of which are true. Truth and falsity are called the two possible truth values of a statement. Thus, the truth value of the ? rst two statements is true, the truth value of the second two is false, and the truth value of the last statement, as well as that of its components, is true. Unlike statements, many sentences cannot be said to be either true or false. Questions, proposals, suggestions, commands, and exclamations ordinarily cannot, and so are not usually classi? ed as statements.The following sentences are not statements Where is Khartoum? Lets go to a movie tonight. I suggest you get contact lenses. Turn off the TV right now. Fantastic (question) (proposal) (suggestion) (command) (exclamation) The statements that make up an argument are divided into one or more premises and one and only one conclusion. The premises are the statements that set forth the reasons or evidence, and the conclusion is the statement that the evidence is claimed to support or imply. In other words, the conclusion is the statement that is claimed to follow from the premises. Here is an example of an argument All film stars are celebrities. Halle Berry is a film star.Therefore, Halle Berry is a celebrity. The ? rst two statements are the premises the third is the conclusion. (The claim that the premises support or imply the conclusion is indicated by the word therefore. ) In this argument the premises really do support the conclusion, and so the argument is a good one. But consider this argument Some film stars are men. Cameron Diaz is a film star. Therefore, Cameron Diaz is a man. In this argument the premises do not support the conclusion, even though they are claimed to, and so the argument is not a good one. One of the most important tasks in the analysis of arguments is being able to distinguish premises from conclusions.If what is thought to be a conclusion is really a premise, and vice versa, the subsequent analysis cannot possibly be correct. Manyarguments 2 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. contain indicator words that provide clues in identifying premises and conclusion.Some typical conclusion indicators are therefore wherefore thus consequently we may infer accordingly we may conclude it must be that for this reason so entails that hence it follows that implies that as a result 1 Whenever a statement follows one of these indicators, it can usually be identi? ed as the conclusi on. By process of elimination the other statements in the argument are the premises. Example Tortured prisoners will say anything just to relieve the pain. Consequently, torture is not a reliable method of interrogation. The conclusion of this argument is Torture is not a reliable method of interrogation, and the premise is Tortured prisoners will say anything just to relieve the pain. Premises Claimed evidence Conclusion What is claimed to follow from the evidenceIf an argument does not contain a conclusion indicator, it may contain a premise indicator. Some typical premise indicators are since as indicated by because for in that may be inferred from as given that seeing that for the reason that in as much as owing to Any statement following one of these indicators can usually be identi? ed as a premise. Example Expectant mothers should never use recreational drugs, since the use of these drugs can jeopardize the development of the fetus. The premise of this argument is The use of these drugs can jeopardize the development of the fetus, and the conclusion is Expectant mothers should never use recreational drugs. In reviewing the list of indicators, note that for this reason is a conclusion indicator, whereas for the reason that is a premise indicator. For this reason (except Section 1. 1 Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions 3 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 1 hen followed by a colon) means for the reason (premise) that was just given, so what follows is the conclusion. On the other hand, for the reason that announces that a premise is ab out to be stated. Sometimes a angiotensin-converting enzyme indicator can be used to identify more than one premise. carry on the following argument It is vitally important that wilderness areas be preserved, for wilderness provides essential habitat for wildlife, including endangered species, and it is a natural retreat from the stress of day-by-day life. The premise indicator for goes with both Wilderness provides essential habitat for wildlife, including endangered species, and It is a natural retreat from the stress of daily life. These are the premises. By method of elimination, It is vitally important that wilderness areas be preserved is the conclusion. Some arguments contain no indicators. With these, the reader/listener must ask such questions as What single statement is claimed (implicitly) to follow from the others? What is the arguer trying to prove? What is the main point in the passage? The answers to these questions should point to the conclusion. Example The space program deserves increased expenditures in the years ahead. Not only does the national defense depend on it, but the program will more than pay for itself in terms of expert spinoffs.Furthermore, at current funding levels the program cannot fulfill its anticipated potential. The conclusion of this argument is the ? rst statement, and all of the other statements are premises. The argument illustrates the pattern found in most arguments that lack indicator words the intended conclusion is stated ? rst, and the remaining statements are then o? ered in support of this ? rst statement. When the argument is restructured according to logical principles, however, the conclusion is always listed after the premises P1 P2 P3 C The national defense is dependent on the space program. The space program will more than pay for itself in terms of technological spinoffs.At current funding levels the space program cannot fulfill its anticipated potential. The space program deserves increased expendi tures in the years ahead. When restructuring arguments such as this, one should remain as close as possible to the original version, while at the same time attending to the requirement that premises and conclusion be complete sentences that are meaningful in the order in which they are listed. Note that the ? rst two premises are included within the scope of a single sentence in the original argument. For the purposes of this chapter, compound arrangements of statements in which the various components are all claimed to be true will be considered as separate statements.Passages that contain arguments sometimes contain statements that are neither premises nor conclusions. Only statements that are actually intended to support the conclusion should be included in the list of premises. If, for example, a statement 4 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. erves merely to introduce the general topic, or merely makes a acquittance comment, it should not be interpreted as part of the argument. Examples The claim is often made that malpractice lawsuits drive up the cost of health care. But if such suits were outlawed or severely restricted, then patients would have no means of recovery for injuries caused by negligent doctors. Hence, the availability of malpractice litigation should be maintained intact. Massive federal deficits push up interest rates for everyone. Servicing the debt gobbles up a huge portion of the federal budget, which lowers our standard of living. And big deficits also weaken the value of the dollar. For thes e reasons, Congress must make a determined effort to cut overall spending and raise taxes.Politicians who ignore this reality imperil the future of the nation. 1 In the ? rst argument, the opening statement serves merely to introduce the topic, so it is not part of the argument. The premise is the second statement, and the conclusion is the last statement. In the second argument, the ? nal statement merely makes a passing comment, so it is not part of the argument. The premises are the ? rst three statements, and the statement following for these reasons is the conclusion. Closely related to the concepts of argument and statement are those of inference and proposition. An inference, in the narrow sense of the term, is the reasoning process expressed by an argument.In the broad sense of the term, inference is used interchangeably with argument. Analogously, a proposition, in the narrow sense, is the meaning or information content of a statement. For the purposes of this book, howeve r, proposition and statement are used interchangeably. Note on the History of Logic The person who is generally attribute as the father of logic is the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (384322 b. c. ). Aristotles predecessors had been interested in the art of constructing persuasive arguments and in techniques for refuting the arguments of others, but it was Aristotle who ? rst devised systematic criteria for analyzing and evaluating arguments.Aristotles heading accomplishment is called syllogistic logic, a kind of logic in which the fundamental elements are terms, and arguments are evaluated as good or bad depending on how the terms are arranged in the argument. Chapters 4 and 5 of this textbook are devoted mainly to syllogistic logic. But Aristotle also deserves credit for originating modal logic, a kind of logic that involves such concepts as possibility, necessity, belief, and doubt. In addition, Aristotle catalogued several informal fallacies, a topic treated in Chapter 3 of this book. After Aristotles death, other Greek philosopher, Chrysippus (280206 b. c. ), one of the founders of the Stoic school, developed a logic in which the fundamental elements were whole propositions.Chrysippus treated every proposition as either true or false and developed rules for determining the truth or falsity of compound propositions from the truth or falsity of their components. In the course of doing so, he pose the foundation for the truth functional interpretation of the logical connectives presented in Chapter 6 of this book and introduced the notion of natural deduction, treated in Chapter 7. Section 1. 1 Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions 5 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learni ng experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 1 For thirteen hundred years after the death of Chrysippus, relatively little creative work was done in logic. The physician Galen (a. d. 129ca. 199) developed the theory of the compound categorical syllogism, but for the most part philosophers con? ned themselves to writing commentaries on the works of Aristotle and Chrysippus. Boethius (ca. 480524) is a noteworthy example. The ? rst major logician of the Middle Ages was Peter Abelard (10791142). Abelard reconstructed and re? ed the logic of Aristotle and Chrysippus as communicated by Boethius, and he originated a theory of universals that traced the universal character of general terms to concepts in the mind rather than to natures existing outside the mind, as Aristotle had held. In addition, Abelard distinguished arguments that arevalid because of their form from those that are valid because o f their content, but he held that only formal validity is the perfect or conclusive variety. The present text